Attitude, Self-Concept & Achievement in Middle School Mathematics

Getting Started on a Literature Review 

Mathematics self-concept, attitude and achievement are emphasized as motivational factors in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. The purpose of this review was to gain a better understanding of these factors as they relate to middle school students.

With no mention of theory, Obgunotyinbo (2012) reports on the low mathematical achievement seen in the United States. The main proposals for the United States’ inability to perform globally in the area of mathematics include poor teaching training, a hyper-focus on standardized testing, the lack of diversity amongst teachers and on the failures to focus on reasoning and sense making in mathematics. In summary, Obgunotyinbo (2012) uses the voice of mathematical scholars to disperse a lack of inspiration and challenge in the secondary schools as the reason for the lack of U.S presentation in the math arena. Research by Yilmaz, Altun and Olkun (2010) states that a successful student has a positive attitude. However, Bouhlila (2011) found some of the highest scoring countries with the greatest number of negative attitudes in mathematics. Differing in views, attitude appears as a popular theme.

In mathematics education, research on attitude has been motivated by the belief that it plays a crucial role in learning mathematics. Ma and Kishor (1997) define one’s attitude towards mathematics “as an aggregated measure of liking or disliking of mathematics, a tendency to engage in or avoid mathematical activities, a believe that one is good or bad at mathematics, and a belief that mathematics is useful or useless” (p. 27). Neal (1969) defines attitude towards mathematics as “an aggregated liking or of disliking mathematics, a tendency engage in or avoid mathematical activities, a belief that one is good or bad at mathematics, and a belief that mathematic is useful or useless"(p. 632). Mathematical attitude where behaviors do not appear explicitly are defined as a pattern of beliefs and emotions associated with mathematics (Daskalogianni & Simpson, 2000). Thus leading from a motivation view to one, which based on self-concept; a student’s perception or belief in ability.

Self-concept of ability is commonly discussed as having a direct impact on a student’s attitude and achievement (Möller, Pohlmann, Köller & Marsh, 2009; Marsh, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller, & Baumert, 2005; Wilkins, 2004). Using commonly found theoretical models, studies have found elements that effect self-concept of ability and directly impact student achievement. Research by Wang, Osterlind, and Bergin (2012) further emphasizes self-concept of ability as one of the major predictors of achievement making it an essential concept in the field of mathematics education.

As students progress in years of schooling negative attitudes towards mathematics increase, and self-concept of ability in mathematics decrease (Wilkins, 2004). This happens to coincide with the dip in mathematical achievement seen at the middle school level. A reason why the three constructs have been researched in depth for several years. Further reasoning as to why social-cognitive models and theories emphasize attitude and self-concept as impacting factors on mathematics achievement.

In the U.S. negativity towards mathematics becomes prominent around the middle school years. According Hassan, Ching, and Hamizah (2012), interventions such as teacher support, cooperative learning, classroom materials, modeling, and self-efficacy have direct effects on the intrinsic motivation; related to the attitudes of students. With such interventions having an impact on attitude, one can consider these interventions to further have an impact on self-concept and achievement. However, this is unclear.

The mathematical performance of students is regularly compared. One particular study is that of Bouhlila (2011) which considers factors that effect the mathematics education in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Factors connected to low performance in mathematics include language fluency, homework, mathematical content and cognitive domains set by curriculum, family background, socioeconomic status and attitudes towards mathematics. According to the data analyzed by Bouhlila (2011), MENA countries rank high in attitude and self-concept however mathematical performance is low. Conversely, countries such as Japan, Korea and China who ranked low in positive attitudes, and self-concept are some of the higher scoring countries in mathematics. However, there is no mention of how a positive or negative student perception is developed nor is there mention of the relations found in United States.

The goal is to look globally for factors and influences, which have a positive effect on middle school students’ mathematical attitudes and self-concept to provide supports and interventions. The hierarchal and/or causal relations of the social supports and the role which they play in the development of self-concept in the middle school mathematic student is an area which is lacking.

The Constructs of Self-Concept, Attitude and Achievement

Self -Concept

Self-concept is defined as “an individual’s perception or belief in their ability to do well in an academic domain” (Wang et al., 2012, p. 1215). Self-concept explains an individual’s belief to learn and do well in mathematics. Research endorses the importance of a positive self-concept to achievement, emphasizing self-concept enhancement (McInerney, Cheng, Mok, & Lam, 2012). Self-concept has an important effect on the way student’s “feel about themselves, their accomplishments, persistence and educational decisions” (Möller et al., 2009, p. 1130).

In defining self-concept two separate areas, academic and non-academic, must be defined. Academic self-concept of ability consists of an individual’s belief to perform well in subject specific domains, such as math, science or English. The non-academic area consists of the physical, social, and emotional aspects of an individual.

Academic self-concept of ability is of significance in understanding mathematics achievement defined as an explanatory variable in mathematics achievement and as a controlling variable in initial achievement (Valentine, Dubois & Cooper, 2004; Wang et al., 2012). Academic self-concept is one of the strongest predictors of mathematics achievement in both the near and distant future of students (Valentine et al., 2004). This advances self-concept as a fundamental attribute in understanding the mathematical achievement in students.

Internal/External Frame of Reference Model.

Academic self-concept is recognized as impacting academic achievement across subject domains. There are high positive correlations between math and verbal achievements as well as math and science achievements. Studies of self-concept should be redefined on a domain specific level based on the high subjectivity of this construct (Möller et al., 2009).

According to the internal/external frame of reference model, students compare their abilities using two frames. The external frame of reference is modeled by students who makes social comparisons such as comparing math performance to their peers. The internal frame of reference refers to instances when students compare their achievement in one subject to that of another subject. These external and internal elements are considered crucial in the development of self-concept. Based on the external frame students who are comparatively low in the area of mathematics achievement are expected to have low levels of self-concept. Using the internal frame, students who are low achievers in the area of mathematics are expected to have higher levels of self-concept in subjects such as English. Few studies have used the I/E model to investigate mathematics and non-verbal subjects. This leaves room for researchers to expand the application of the I/E model and the study of self-concept to areas other than math and the verbal domains.

Attitude

A simple definition of mathematical attitude is the learned tendency or predisposition to respond in a consistently negative or positive manner towards mathematics; a positive or negative emotional disposition toward mathematics. Interestingly related to attitudinal studies by researchers is the direct correlation between achievement and attitude (Lipnevich, MacCann, Krumm, Burrus, & Roberts, 2011).

A common assumption is students with a negative attitude towards mathematics are low achievers. This conversely, students with positive attitudes tend to be those with high levels of achievement. Disputing this common assumption are results shared by Bouhlila (2011) and Riegle-Crumb, Moore, and Ramos-Wada (2011).

The expectancy-value model is a model that concentrates on students’ beliefs in their own ability and competence (Denissen et al., 2007). According to this model there are two key predictors of achievement; self-concept of ability and subjective task values. Subjective task values are strong predictor of future choices (Wilkins, 2004; Wang et al., 2012). Where as, self-concept of ability is a stronger predictor of achievement of self-concept (Wilkins, 2004; Wang et al., 2012). This model tends to put a focus on self-concept for those concerned with immediate achievement. However, the work of Marsh, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller, and Baumert (2005) confirms the relationship between academic self-concept and achievement but extends the relationship to include academic interest adding a new branch when considering achievement.

Authors Riegle-Crumb et al. (2011), refute the expectancy-value model dispelling that African American female are just as likely to strive for careers in mathematics due to the enjoyment of the subject; despite low levels of self-concept. Such research guides the creation of positive, intriguing and enjoyable classroom experiences. Providing enjoyable experiences is not a predictable factor of achievement but a predictor of positive attitudes and interest in mathematics. Self-concept and achievement may be low, however, the existence of a positive attitude is attainable via the design of proper classroom environmental factors. Positive experiences can lead to positive attitudes in mathematics. In summary, failing to focus on one factor diminishes the relationship and directly impacts the other factors (Marsh et al., 2005).

Self-Concept and Achievement

There is validity in self-concept as a key factor in understanding the levels of math achievement. Breaking from motivational constructs, Wang et al. (2012) confirms that self-concept as “the only identical pattern of prediction of eighth grade students’ mathematics achievement across four countries” (p. 1231). Relying on the expectancy-value model, self-concept of ability is defined as a strong predictor in achievement having a positive relationship with mathematics achievement in various countries.

Self-concept is of particular importance in understanding mathematics achievement. Despite being studied in conjunction with other constructs such as task value and other subjects such as science, math self-concept has a stronger relation to math achievement than other constructs. Self-concept in mathematics has a greater magnitude of variance in math achievement over subjects such as science and English. Self-concept also aligns itself better with predicting achievement over task value, which has been aligned as a predictor of course choice.

Self-concept affects achievement and achievement affects self-concept (McInerney et al., 2012). According to the self-enhancement model, academic self-concept is a strong predictor of achievement. The inverse is believed to be true through the skills development model that implies that self-concept is a result of achievement. Other models suggest the existence of a reciprocal model where self-concept predicts future achievement and prior achievement affects self-concept (Valentine, Dubois, & Cooper, 2004). The dispute lies in whether one can predict the other.

Cultural Implications.

Utilizing an internal-frame-of reference effect, academic self-concept achievement shares a reciprocal relationship. Wilkins (2004) addresses the relationship between self-concept and achievement from an international perspective that is lacking in the field. The international and global comparison of Wilkins (2004) shows students worldwide tend to have a relatively positive view about their mathematics performance. On a student level, students with positive self-concepts had higher levels of achievement and vice versa (Wilkins, 2004). Differing from this view is that at the country level where higher achieving countries, particularly Asian and Eastern European countries have lower levels of self-concept despite high levels of achievement (Wilkins, 2004). This defines Wilkins proposal that that cultural differences may impact individual countries’ self-concept.

Cultural differences between countries could mediate the relationship between math self-concept and math achievement. The research of Yoshino examines the relationship between eighth-grade students’ math self-concepts and achievements via the TIMMS 2007 data. The results indicate a positive relationship between a student’s self-concept and mathematics achievement. Yoshino extended this study beyond the United States into Japan so as to examine the impact of culture on these two constructs. Self-concept is found to be lower in Japan despite the level of mathematics achievement signifying cultural differences as impacting self-concept.

The work of Yoshino (2012) confirms a strong interaction between math self-concept and country as well as a positive connection between math self-concept and math achievement irrespective of the country. Thus implying the existence of cultural aspects that impact the math self-concept and achievement of these students. Whether these aspects include racial differences is unknown.

The discussion of the I/E model provides insight to self-concept of mathematics ability and culture. For instance, students in Japan are more likely to compare their scores to other students who performed at higher levels thus decreasing their perception of mathematics abilities. Such findings are pertinent to educators in understanding the affects culture and comparison has on the self-concept of the mathematics students as well as their perception of achievement. Differing from other research, Wilkins (2004) shared additional research laying claim that there is wide range in self-concept amongst boys and girls amongst cultures. Consideration of cultural variances as it pertains to self-concept is a factor to examine.

Attitude and Achievement

For over thirty years, student attitudes and achievement have been themes in educational research. Such research has proven there to be a strong relationship between positive attitudes and academic success.

A common belief, whether factual or not, is that students have a more negative attitude towards math and science in comparison to other academic areas; a reason for researchers to delve into the studies of attitude and achievement (Rice et al., 2013). Of importance is evidence that suggests attitudes towards science and mathematics follow different paths over adolescence (Rice et al., 2013). Such evidence backs the need to differentiate mathematics from other subjects as achievement is being studied.

Within a multi-variant study on achievement, Lipnevich et al. (2011), expose the existence of a relationship between mathematical achievement and attitudes towards mathematics via a theory of planned behavior. The results of the Lipenvich et al. (2011) study show a strong correlation between a student’s mathematics attitude and achievement. The study also shares a minimal difference in the mathematical attitudes across the two cultures. The strongest implication of this study is the use of interventions designed to improve student attitudes have a direct impact on student grades. Such interventions include increased teacher support, collaborative work, and the use of manipulatives and technology.

Consistent with findings from earlier research, Rice et al. (2013) suggest that students who receive social support for math and science from teachers, peers and parents have better attitudes towards the subject and a better self-concept. This may be the reason why Lipenvich et al. (2011) noted that attitudes are the most important predictor for students’ mathematical achievement. The findings from the study of Rice et al. (2013) coincide with the value of social supports as successful interventions.

Of interest is the suggestion that interventions designed to influence a student’s attitude may directly impact the student’s achievement. Suggested interventions include teacher support, classroom interventions and modeling by peers, parents and teachers. With interventions having a direct impact on the attitude of students, the question that rears its head is whether the also interventions have a direct impact on self-concept.

External Factors

Social Support

The social-cognitive model relies on social agents such as parents, teacher and friends. Social agents are to influence academic achievement directly through elements such as self-concept of ability and attitude (Rice et al., 2013). Students who have the perception of social support from parents, teachers and peers tend to have more positive attitudes and self-concept of ability (Rice et al., 2013). As a result of such studies, parents, teachers and peers are all identified as important social agents in establishing positive self-concept across math.

Gender and Stereotypes

According to research aligned with social cognitive models and the expectancy-value model, gender has a direct impact on self-concept and achievement (Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004; 2004, Else-Quest, Mineo & Higgins, 2013). The research of Wang et al. (2011) helps to differentiate gender as it is related to self-concept and achievement by clearly stating that “no gender differences between boys’ and girls’ mathematics achievement” is found in the four countries studied (p. 1229). This steers one in the direction of self-concept.

Self-concept of ability is a psychological paradigm where individuals base their future academic abilities on past experiences (Jones, Irvin & Kibe, 2012). Evidence shows that prior academic self-concept does predict academic achievement. Despite lower math self-concepts in girls, the positive effect of high math self-concept on subsequent math achievement is similar amongst boys and girls. Therefore, diminishing the effect of gender differences in prior achievement.

Parents

Parents’ perceptions of their children’s abilities and their expectations are related to the children’s’ development of self (Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004). Gender-dependent self-concepts are shared by Hergovich et al. (2004) where parents’ have more positive views of their sons’ abilities in mathematics over their daughters’. This is found to be true despite the achievement levels of the girls, therefore supporting the reputation parent’s play in student achievement.

Mothers who reported high perceptions of their children’s abilities to succeed mathematically during middle school were significantly more likely to have adolescents who had high levels of self-concept though high school (Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004). A mother’s belief about an adolescent’s ability in mathematics is shaped by gender stereotypes that are related to the development of an adolescent’s self-perceptions of ability in mathematics. Mothers who believe that boys are stronger than girls in mathematics indirectly impact the self-concept of ability of both genders despite the grades attained. These beliefs are based on the stereotypes of the mothers, which are affected by culture, family beliefs and upbringing. Such work suggests the importance of positive and unbiased supports to students, as they may not exist in the home environment. A close view as to ways in which parents relay their beliefs is needed as well as a study as to what additional factors beyond parental stereotypes may effect a student’s self-concept of ability. Additionally, looking for ways which non-parental relationships can diminish stereotyping

These findings strengthen the gender-stereotypical differences from the transition to pre-adolescence to adolescence that is consistent with findings of other researchers. Such implications relate to understanding self-concept and achievement in research with a leading direction towards gender stereotypes.

Teachers

Teacher licensure does not predict achievement, but does have a significant impact on self-concept for students in the United States (Wang et al, 2011). Additional suggestions include the possible relation between a certified mathematics teacher and self-concept as well as self-concept and mathematics achievement. Exploring this relationship could bring about pertinent information to understanding achievement but also in understanding how a student learns. The way in which “teachers deal with frustration and they deal with mistakes may affect students’ self-concept of ability in mathematics directly and mathematics achievement directly/indirectly” (Wang et al, 2011, p. 1234).

To broaden the scope previous studies on students’ mathematical attitudes, Hassan et al. (2012) report high school students’ opinions on what factors influenced their attitudes against mathematics. Building on foundational theories, the authors take a different avenue by involving mathematically gifted Malaysian students in the process of the study; gaining student perspectives over observant data. Students who score high in mathematics rate the materials used during teaching, textbooks, the workload and the teacher’s attitude and personality as their leading factors. Students who score in the average range in mathematics rated the teacher’s attitude and personality, teacher’s knowledge on the topics, workload and textbook use as the leading factors. Low-scoring students rated exams, grades, materials used during teaching and the teacher’s attitude as their leading factors. Personality and attitude of a teacher are key factors in making students dislike mathematics according to this article.

The latent class analyses of Kalder and Lesik (2011) examined the characteristic of pre-service teachers that may be related to positive attitudes and beliefs towards mathematics; making reference to the connection between a teacher’s attitude and a student’s attitude. Findings conclude that teachers with positive attitudes are those who are math majors; both elementary math majors and secondary math majors. Teachers with negative attitudes who are teaching in elementary classrooms directly impact student attitudes towards mathematics. This study sets the stage for the development of positive attitudes in non-math majors with a specific focus on pre-service elementary teachers. A question as to how much of an impact the elementary teachers have on the self-concept of middle school students has risen as well as the what program changes could be put into place to support positive student attitudes.

Peers

Peer emulation theory offers a theoretical basis for the relationship amongst peers and academic self-concept of ability and achievement. The peer emulation theory suggests interactions with peers, positive or negative, can affect a student’s academic self-concept (Lee & Shute, 2010). This includes the stereotype of math being for geeks, or not cool.

The work of Jones et al. (2012) relies on behavior. Differing from the peer emulation theory, their study states that the way in which friends interact affects academic self-concept. Research in this area extends this work, claiming that higher achieving friends might diminish academic self-concept. Although limited in examining other variables, such as the role of teachers or culture, the work of Jones et al. (2012) discusses the validity that academic supports such as peer relations are factors to consider in the development of self-concept in mathematics.

Learning Environment

Few researchers have considered the contextual effects associated with classrooms, or schools that may be related to self-concept and achievement (Wilkins, 2004). Current literature suggests educators try to enhance self-concept and skill development simultaneously. According to the meta-analysis of the I/E frame of reference by Möller et al (2009), mathematics achievement is higher when based on test scores instead of grades. Grades in turn have a stronger impact on self-concept. This emphasizes the need for teachers to use grades as a direct form of feedback for students and as a tool for supporting self-concept of ability.

Students who have high levels of self-concept in mathematics are likely to use deep learning strategies. Deep learners are recognized as having higher levels of achievement in mathematics, which is interceded by self-concept, as well as the inverse (McInerney et al., 2012). Students, who use rote or surface level learning strategies, are likely to have lower self-concepts towards mathematics. The successful application of domain specific strategies as they relate to achievement indicates the enhancement of self-concept relies on the segregation of academic domains.

Students are inclined to have distinct self-concepts when it comes to subject domains. Implications of literature advise the separation and focus on the specific domains that are known to directly affect achievement because the correlation between self-concept and achievement is higher for related subjects over non-related subject. English achievement has a positive effect on English self-concept but a negative effect on math self-concept (Chen et al., 2012; McInerney, et al., 2012). Math achievement has a positive effect on math achievement but has no effect on a student’s English self-concept. A lack of reciprocity in domains, lends to the differentiation of mathematics from other domains when studying self-concept and achievement.

Big Fish Little Pond Effect.

The BFLPE lends itself to the internal/external frame-of-reference effect. Through this social construct, the high math self-concept of an individual is impacted negatively when working with an individual of a higher achievement level; external frame-of-reference. The internal frame-of-reference lends to the idea that an individual can only be strong in one subject. A strong mathematical individual cannot be strong in English and vice versa.

The Big Fish Little Pond Effect (BFLPE) proposes that students of equal ability have lower academic self-concept in classes where the average ability or achievement of peers is high and higher academic self-concept in classes where the ability of classmates is low (Marsh et al., 2005; Parker, 2010; Preckel, Gotz, & Frenzel, 2010). The BGLPE suggests gifted students may suffer decreases in academic self-concept when they are grouped with other gifted students (Preckel et al., 2010).

Ability grouping has been shown to affect a student’s self-concept. Data shows that the mathematics self-concept of students, who are grouped by ability, report substantial decreases while students who remain in homogenously grouped classes report no change in self-concept (Precke, et al, 2010). These finding correlate with the BLPE. However, the research of Precke, et al (2010) found the largest decrease in self-concept during the first 10 weeks of class after which no significant decreases were reported. Such findings suggest the need for supports and interventions during the early weeks of classes to offset the negative effects of the BFLPE on self-concept of ability in ability groupings. When ability grouping is not utilized, the impact of supports and interventions remains unknown.

The research of Hergovic et al. (2004) supports a decrease of self-concept early in the school year, with new groups and/or with ability groups. All research being opposite of that concluded by Yilmaz et al. (2010) which suggests the self-concept of successful students will remain high as the love the subject is the deciding factor. Although distant in the beginning a stronger correlation is seen here, however, it is not clear if one predicts the other.

Due to its association with math achievement and self-concept, the BGLPE is frequently referenced in gender and stereotypical views. In understanding this construct one gains an outlook at on leveling classes, ability grouping and the impact they have on the self-concept of students that are commonly used interventions at the middle school level.

Implications for Middle School

Current findings indicate that gender differences in attitudes are present in early adolescence and continue through middle and high school. Gender intensification theory suggests gender-role activities become more important to young adolescents over time as they try to conform to behavioral gender-role stereotypes (Watt, 2004). Perceptions converge as students enter middle school (Booth, 2012; Watt, 2004).

Literature supports decreases in self-concept, attitude and achievement in mathematics through secondary school, with particular changes during transitional years; middle school. In a study done by Watt (2004), students share the perception of seventh grade math as needed less effort than previous years in math. Along with a decline in perceived effort, mathematics self-concept declines in grade seven (Watt, 2004). Watt connects this decline to the person-environment fit model that relies on the effect classroom environment has on self-concept. Other research base declines on the physiological and psychological changes associated with pre-adolescence.

Results show that boys have a higher sense of self-concept than girls in almost all areas. Consistent results show that boys have a higher self-concept than girls in the area of mathematics. The peak difference occurs at the onset of adolescence (Hergovich, Sirsch, & Felinger, 2004). Watt (2004) extends the study to examine gender differences, which shows a decline in girls’ self-concept that are said to rely on prior experiences directly impact a girl’s self-concept in mathematics. In a study done by Watt (2004), girls exhibit more negative change in self-concept than boys through middle school.

Negative effects are commonly found as students enter middle school. In a study completed by Watt (2004), students saw grade seven as a year of review and repetition in mathematics. One consideration is a decline in math achievement results from the belief of students that less effort is needed. The backing for this belief comes from the lack of repetitive content in other subject areas and no other subjects seeing negative effects on achievement.

The importance of inconsistencies that appear in pre-adolescents is highlighted by Riegle-Crumb, Moore, & Ramos-Wada (2011) with a specific focus on how these differences affect self-concept and intrinsic value of mathematics. Social psychological research indicates decisions and preferences individuals develop during adolescence are formative for future choices.

Related indirectly to middle school is the factor of age. In accordance to age is the movement from the elementary structure to that of the middle school. Schools tend to be larger as do the class sizes. Teachers are dealing with a larger number of students on a daily basis and the relationships tend to diverge. Changes in instructional modes, discipline and perceived supports also change for students. At the same time the students at this age are going through physical and psychological changes of their own. The amount of change at this age directly impacts the amount of attainment possible for a student in middle school (Watt, 2004).

The stage-environment/person-environment fit theory suggests that academic outcomes decline after elementary school because middle schools fail to support students’ developmental needs (Attard, 2013; Bicknell & Riley, 2012; Rice et al., 2013). This theory suggests a lack of fit between the middle school environment and the needs of young adolescents, therefore having a negative impact on student self-concept, attitude and achievement.

Conclusion

There exist both cognitive and biological principles as to why students dislike school (Willingham, 2009). Accordingly, the mathematical achievement and learning of a middle school student is impacted by these principles all the time. Willingham provides guiding principles to help teachers in planning as well as providing a balance for the conflicting emotional, social and motivational concerns. However, the implication such principles have on the math attitude, self-concept and achievement of the middle school student lack in definition.

The review of current literature supports the interdependence of attitude, achievement, and self-concept. The relationships are strongly supported by the findings of researchers, and theories however lack causal delineations. However, few studies examine the impact of support and interventions on self-concept of ability. Essentially, the literature fails to discuss collaborative efforts and the potential impacts such efforts could have on a student’s sense of self-concept. Literature suggests a need for teacher and parent awareness in developing attitudes in mathematics (Möller et al., 2009). Excelling a high achieving student in mathematics who does not have a high self-concept can lead to a negative attitude. On the other hand, the proposal of a challenge for a student with a high level of self-concept and a low level of achievement is supportive in the development of a positive attitude. This reference to the I/E model lends to the utilization of the internal frame of reference effectively by both teacher and parents. The encouragement of self-concept as a part of classroom practices is more effective for teachers over separate interventions (Marsh et al., 2005). However, there is little work expressing how this can happen. The differences in self-concept rely on teachers, and parents but there is a lacking in the specifics as to what actions can be taken to promote a positive impact. (Hergovich, et al., 2004). A specific focus on the hierarchical or causal role in which social supports play in the development of a middle school student’s self-concept of ability in mathematics is suggested.

As stated early, there is an apparent negativity towards mathematics that become prominent the middles school years. The general consensus within literature shows a decrease in self-concept as students progress in grade levels. Reasons include a lack of social supports, gender differences, classroom environment and stereotypical views as some of the dominating factors. Such statements propose that the middle school level is a vital time for students. However, little research has been done specifically at this grade level in the area of mathematics achievement. In fact few studies have focused primarily on the one academic domain of mathematics.

With the notion of potential interventions available, one would expect clarity in literature pertaining to said supports. However, this is not the case. Furthermore, there is little indication of what interventions have been deemed successful determinants for middle school aged students worldwide. Currently there are several aspect of literature related to mathematics achievement. However, there is little perspective on specific supports and interventions which have a positive effect on middle school students’ mathematical attitudes and self-concept to provide. The hierarchal or causal relations of supports and the role which they play in the development of self-concept in the middle school mathematic student is an area which is lacking.

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Lee, J., & Shute, V. J. (2010). Personal and social-contextual factors in K–12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist, 45(3), 185-202.

Lipnevich, A. A, MacCann, C., Krumm, S., Burrus, J., & Roberts, R. D. (2011). Mathematics attitudes and mathematics outcomes of U.S. and Belarusian middle school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 105–118. doi:10.1037/a0021949

Ma, X., & Kishor, N. (1997). Assessing the relationship between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Journal for Research in Mathematics education, 28(1), 26-47. doi:10.2307/749662

Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2005). Academic self-concept, interest, grades, and standardized test scores: Reciprocal effects models of causal ordering. Child Development, 76(2), 397–416. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00853.x

McInerney, D. M., Cheng, R. W., Mok, M. M. C., & Lam, A. K. H. (2012). Academic self-concept and learning strategies: Direction of effect on student academic achievement. Journal of Advanced Academics, 23(3), 249–269. doi: 10.1177/1932202X12451020

Möller, J., Pohlmann, B., Köller, O., & Marsh, H. W. (2009). A meta-analytic path analysis of the internal/external frame of reference model of academic achievement and academic self-concept. Review of Educational Research, 79(3), 1129–1167. doi:10.3102/0034654309337522

Neale, D. C. (1969). The role of attitudes in learning mathematics. The Arithmetic Teacher, 16(8), 631-640.

Oguntoyinbo, L. (2012). Math problem. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 29(13), 18–19.

Parker, A. K. (2010). A longitudinal investigation of young adolescents’ self-concepts in the middle grades. RMLE Online: Research in Middle Level Education, 33(10), 1–13.

Preckel, F., Gotz, T., & Frenzel, A. (2010). Ability grouping of gifted students: Effects on academic self-concept and boredom. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 451–472.

Rice, L., Barth, J. M., Guadagno, R. E., Smith, G. P. A., & McCallum, D. M. (2013). The role of social support in students’ perceived abilities and attitudes toward math and science. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(7), 1028–1040. doi: 10.1177/1932202X14536566

Riegle-Crumb, C., Moore, C., & Ramos-Wada, A. (2011). Who wants to have a career in science or math? exploring adolescents’ future aspirations by gender and race/ethnicity. Science Education, 95(3), 458–476. doi: 0.1002/sce.20431

Valentine, J., Dubois, D. L., & Cooper, H. (2004). The relation between self-beliefs and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 39(2), 111–133. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3902_3

Wang, Z., Osterlind, S. J., & Bergin, D. A. (2012). Building mathematics achievement models in four countries using TIMSS 2003. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(5), 1215–1242. doi: 10.1007/s10763-011-9328-6

Watt, H. M. (2004). Development of adolescents' self-perceptions, values, and task perceptions according to gender and domain in 7th through 11th grade Australian students. Child development, 75(5), 1556-1574. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00757.x

Wilkins, J. L. M. (2004). Mathematics and science self-concept: An international investigation. The Journal of Experimental Education, 72(4), 331–346. doi: 10.3200/JEXE.72.4.331-346

Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why don't students like school: A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Yilmaz, C., Altun, S. A. & Ollkun, S. (2010). Factors affecting students‟ attitude towards math: ABC theory and its reflection on practice. Procedia Social Science and Behavioural Sciences, 2(2), 4502-4506. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.720

Yoshino, A. (2012). The relationship between self-concept and achievement in TIMSS 2007: A comparison between American and Japanese students. International Review of Education, 58(2), 199–219. doi: 10.1007/s11159-012-9283-7

The 5 C's of a Literature Review

Concise

The amount of literature available on any given topic can be vast. The attention to the conciseness of a literature review will rely precision of the research questions (location 1978 of 5314). It is at this early stage that the researcher will need to decipher where the gaps of knowledge are within the current research. Callahan (2014) describes this as a development of a research question that fulfills a lacking in current research and not necessarily the development of a new theory or phenomenon (p. 271).

Clear

The literature pertaining to a research topic will also vary. Some material will be conceptual and other material will be research based. Referring back to the research questions and asking how the literature pertains to the topic is essential. This can help the researcher to identify common themes, threads and patterns. Both Callahan (2014) and Roberts (2011) suggest the usage of a systematic method such as a matrix in organizing pertinent literature. A method such as this can support the researcher in analyzing and synthesizing.

Critical

A literature review is more than a summary of materials. Each piece of literature should be critiqued and analyzed for assumptions, beliefs, and values that essentially influence the authors thought (Callahan, 2014, p. 274). As a researcher it is at this point that one needs to be critical of the works of others and evaluate the underlying assumptions that may have guided the work of others.

Convincing

Synthesis of the literature asks the research to gather all the analysis and develop convincing argument. Again relying on the organization of the research, Roberts (2011) suggests organizing information into a “logical, coherent and well organized” topic outline. The ultimate goal is what Callahan (2014) identifies as a new interpretation of literature resulting from a critical analysis combined with supporting data.

Contributive

Inclusion of the most relevant information is essential to the literature review. In the words of Roberts (2010), “bigger is not better” in the case of the review (location 1943 of 5314). The goal of a literature review is to support research where research is needed. The review is intended to extend current knowledge, theory and be influential. The review is not a summary of previous work but a new branch created and supported by the researcher.


References

Callahan, J. L. (2014). Writing literature reviews: a reprise and update. Human Resource Development Review, 13(3), 271-275.

Roberts, C. M. (2010). The dissertation journey: A practical and comprehensive guide to planning, writing, and defending your dissertation (2nd ed.) [Kindle Version]. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Retrieved from Amazon.com

Attitude, Self-Concept and Achievement: Middle School Mathematics #edchat #mathed

Study Choice

Mathematics self-concept, attitude and achievement are emphasized as motivational factors in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. As a mathematics teacher of middle school students, it seems only natural to have an interest in these factors.

Research on attitude is driven by the belief that it plays a crucial role in learning mathematics. Ma and Kishor (1997) define one’s attitude towards mathematics “as an aggregated measure of liking or disliking of mathematics, a tendency to engage in or avoid mathematical activities, a believe that one is good or bad at mathematics, and a belief that mathematics is useful or useless” (p. 27). Neal (1969) defines attitude towards mathematics as “an aggregated liking or of disliking mathematics, a tendency engage in or avoid mathematical activities, a belief that one is good or bad at mathematics, and a belief that mathematic is useful or useless"(p. 632). Mathematical attitude where behaviors do not appear explicitly are defined as a pattern of beliefs and emotions associated with mathematics leading from a motivation view to one that is based on self-concept; a student’s perception or belief in ability (Daskalogianni & Simpson, 2000).

Research by Wang, Osterlind, and Bergin (2012) emphasizes self-concept of ability as one of the major predictors of achievement making it an essential concept in mathematic education. Self-concept of ability is argued as having a direct impact on a student’s attitude and achievement making the connectivity amongst the constructs apparent (Möller, Pohlmann, Köller & Marsh, 2009; Marsh, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller, & Baumert, 2005; Wilkins, 2004).

At the preliminary stages, it has been suggested that as students progress in years of schooling, negative attitudes towards mathematics increase, and self-concept of ability in mathematics decrease (Wilkins, 2004). This happens to coincide with the dip in mathematical achievement seen at the middle school level and a reason why the three constructs have been researched in depth for several years. Research by Yilmaz, Altun and Olkun (2010) suggests a successful student has a positive attitude. On the other hand, Bouhlila (2011) suggests some of the highest scoring countries have the greatest number of students with negative attitudes in mathematics. According to Bouhlila (2011), the Middle East and North African (MENA) countries that rank high in attitude and self-concept show low mathematical performance. Conversely, countries such as Japan, Korea and China who rank low in positive attitudes, and self-concept are some of the higher scoring countries in mathematics. In the U.S. negativity towards mathematics becomes prominent around the middle school years.

According Hassan, Ching, and Hamizah (2012), interventions such as teacher support, cooperative learning, classroom materials, modeling, and self-efficacy have direct effects on the intrinsic motivation; related to the attitudes of students. With such interventions having an impact on attitude, one can consider these interventions to further have an impact on self-concept and achievement. However, this is unclear.

The review of current literature supports the interdependence of attitude, achievement, and self-concept. The relationships are supported by the findings of researchers however there is a lacking in causal delineations. Few studies examine the impact of support and interventions on self-concept of ability. Essentially, the literature fails to discuss collaborative efforts and the potential impacts such efforts could have on a student’s sense of self-concept.

The goal is to look globally for factors and influences, which have a positive effect on middle school students’ mathematical attitudes and self-concept to provide supports and interventions. There is little perspective on specific supports and interventions which have a positive effect on middle school students’ mathematical attitudes and self-concept. The hierarchal or causal relations of supports and the role which they play in the development of self-concept in the middle school mathematic student is an area which is lacking. As a researcher a gap in knowledge has been identified which helps to support my interests as a middle level math teacher.

Theories and Authors

The perspective of my work thus far relies on the psychology theory of academic self-concept. Self-concept is defined as “an individual’s perception or belief in their ability to do well in an academic domain” (Wang et al., 2012, p. 1215). Self-concept explains an individual’s belief to learn and do well in. Research endorses the importance of a positive self-concept to achievement, emphasizing self-concept enhancement (McInerney, Cheng, Mok, & Lam, 2012). Self-concept has an important effect on the way student’s “feel about themselves, their accomplishments, persistence and educational decisions” (Möller et al., 2009, p. 1130).

Academic self-concept of ability is of significance in understanding mathematics achievement defined as an explanatory variable in mathematics achievement and as a controlling variable in initial achievement (Valentine, Dubois & Cooper, 2004; Wang et al., 2012). Academic self-concept is argued to be one of the strongest predictors of mathematics achievement in both the near and distant future of students (Valentine et al., 2004). This advances self-concept as a fundamental attribute in understanding the mathematical achievement in students but also provides a lens for achievement in mathematics.

At this point in research there is a scattering of research related to self-concept, attitude and achievement in mathematics with a few authors appearing as prevalent within academic self-concept theories.

Jacquelynne Eccles, Allan Wigfield and associated colleagues have significance in the presentation of their expectancy value model. The expectancy-value model is a model that concentrates on students’ beliefs in their own ability and competence (Denissen et al., 2007). According to this model there are two key predictors of achievement; self-concept of ability and subjective task values. Subjective task values are strong predictor of future choices (Wilkins, 2004; Wang et al., 2012). Where as, self-concept of ability is a stronger predictor of achievement of self-concept (Wilkins, 2004; Wang et al., 2012). This model tends to put a focus on self-concept for those concerned with immediate achievement. Authors such as Marsh, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller, and Baumert (2005) confirm the relationship between academic self-concept and achievement but extend the relationship to include academic interest adding a new branch when considering achievement.

According to the internal/external frame of reference model, students compare their abilities using two frames. The external frame of reference is explained by students who make social comparisons such as comparing math performance to their peers. The internal frame of reference refers to instances when students compare their achievement in one subject to that of another subject. These external and internal elements are considered crucial in the development of self-concept and can be found in much of the work of Marsh and colleagues, making Marsh a key researcher in this area.

Good and Useful Theory

Good, and useful theory contributes to research. According to Anfara and Mertz (2006) theory provides a simple explanation of relations, is consistent with observed relations and previously established knowledge, is a means of verification, and inspires further research (p. xvii). In essence it is the theory which provides a "lens that can be applied to understand phenomena” (Anfara & Mertz, 2006, p. xxvii). Good theory affects research as it allows the researcher “to present a unique view of the phenomenon being studied” (Anfara & Mertz, 2006, p. xiv). It is good and useful theory that provides a support to “shift in one’s mental structure” to discover a different way of thinking (Anfara & Mertz, 2006, p. xxvii). Through the application of good and useful theory, the researcher has the provisions to see and understand aspects of phenomena beyond the ordinary bringing about new insights to research.


References

Anfara, V. A., & Mertz, N. T. (2006). Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications.

Bouhlila, D. S. (2011). The quality of secondary education in the Middle East and North Africa: what can we learn from TIMSS’ results? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 41(3), 327–352. doi: 10.1080/03057925.2010.539887

Daskalogianni, K., & Simpson, A. (2000). Towards a definition of attitude: The relationship between the affective and the cognitive in pre-university. Proceedings of PME Conference, 24(2), 2-217.

Denissen, J. J. A., Zarrett, N. R., & Eccles, J. S. (2007). I like to do I, I’m able, and I know I am: Longitudinal couplings between domain-specific achievement, self-concept, and interest. Child Development, 78(2), 430–447. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01007.x

Hassan, N., Ching, K. Y., & Hamizah, N. N. (2012). Gifted students’ affinity towards mathematics. Advances in Natural & Applied Sciences. 2012, 6(8), 1219–1222. 4p. 3 Charts. Retrieved from: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/235631140_Factors_That_Influence_Gifted_Students_Attitude_against_Mathematics

Ma, X., & Kishor, N. (1997). Assessing the relationship between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Journal for Research in Mathematics education, 28(1), 26-47. doi:10.2307/749662

Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2005). Academic self-concept, interest, grades, and standardized test scores: Reciprocal effects models of causal ordering. Child Development, 76(2), 397–416. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00853.x

McInerney, D. M., Cheng, R. W., Mok, M. M. C., & Lam, A. K. H. (2012). Academic self-concept and learning strategies: Direction of effect on student academic achievement. Journal of Advanced Academics, 23(3), 249–269. doi: 10.1177/1932202X12451020

Möller, J., Pohlmann, B., Köller, O., & Marsh, H. W. (2009). A meta-analytic path analysis of the internal/external frame of reference model of academic achievement and academic self-concept. Review of Educational Research, 79(3), 1129–1167. doi:10.3102/0034654309337522

Neale, D. C. (1969). The role of attitudes in learning mathematics. The Arithmetic Teacher, 16(8), 631-640.

Valentine, J., Dubois, D. L., & Cooper, H. (2004). The relation between self-beliefs and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 39(2), 111–133. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3902_3

Wang, Z., Osterlind, S. J., & Bergin, D. A. (2012). Building mathematics achievement models in four countries using TIMSS 2003. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(5), 1215–1242. doi: 10.1007/s10763-011-9328-6

Wilkins, J. L. M. (2004). Mathematics and science self-concept: An international investigation. The Journal of Experimental Education, 72(4), 331–346. doi: 10.3200/JEXE.72.4.331-346



Yilmaz, C., Altun, S. A. & Ollkun, S. (2010). Factors affecting students‟ attitude towards math: ABC theory and its reflection on practice. Procedia Social Science and Behavioural Sciences, 2(2), 4502-4506. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.720

Evolution of Self-Concept #self-concept #edchat

A Common Factor in Studying Academic Achievement

Research evidence states the importance of self-concept in academic achievement. Self-concept is a common factor when studying academic achievement. With self-concept identifiable in children as early as age six, researchers have studies self-concept differences as general academic indicators, causal predictors of future academic choices, supports for gender stereotypes and as motivational measures.

The transformation of the self-concept as it is related to mathematical achievement has grown over the years. Initial studies did not have data which proved a reciprocal relationship between self-concept and academic achievement as defined by McInerney, Cheng, Mok, and Lam (2012). In fact much of the early research was focused on trying to gain an understanding of gender differences as they are related to academic self-concept. The study of self-concept has extended into the arena of STEM.

The study of self-concept continues to be a strong factor in determining student achievement. It is rarely utilized as the only factor in defining mathematics achievement. It is also rarely used to discuss implications in mathematics alone. Mathematics and science, as they relate to self-concept, are often combined in one study. With two subjects having potentially different paths, Rice, Barth, Guadagno, Smith, and McCallum (2013) suggest that the two subjects, mathematics and science, be studied separately in the future.

In the field of education, self-concept is a common motivational construct that is discussed. This is also true in educational research. Self-concept is known to have an impact on achievement. The questions and future studies are now directed towards developing the factors that make an impact on self-concept, especially in the middle years, as well as how self-concept transfers into career choice.


References

Hergovich, A., Sirsch, U., & Felinger, M. (2004). Gender Differences in the Self-Concept of Preadolescent Children. School Psychology International, 25(2), 207-222.

McInerney, D. M., Cheng, R., Mok, M., & Lam, A. (2012). Academic Self-Concept and Learning Strategies: Direction of Effect on Student Academic Achievement. Journal Of Advanced Academics, 23(3), 249-269.

Rice, L., Barth, J. M., Guadagno, R. E., Smith, G. A., & McCallum, D. M. (2013). The Role of Social Support in Students' Perceived Abilities and Attitudes toward Math and Science. Journal Of Youth And Adolescence, 42(7), 1028-1040.

Implementing Blogging Technology into Middle Level Education #blogging

Strategic Plan

The daily challenge of educators is the gathering of students’ learning data on the basis of what students do in the classroom (U. S. Department of Education, 2014). Technology can be used effectively as a tool for data collection for more so in making learning transparent and inclusive. Technology can offer ways for students to establish personal and intellectual ownership of new concepts while they visualize and interact with abstract ideas (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). If students are to avoid being “confined merely to participating in established practices and making meanings within them” it is important that they are actively able to produce, change and transform a given literacy and not simply participate within it (Lankshear and Knobel, 2006).

Hurlburt (2008) directs instructors further in the usage of the Internet and the incorporation of Web 2.0 tools in education. “Internet and Web 2.0 technologies afford students opportunities to seek information, collect their own material, communicate, make meaning, and evaluate end products” (Nelson, Christopher and Mims, 2009, p. 81). As a result, Web 2.0 technologies have received intense and growing interest across education (Hossain and Quinn, 2013).

Blogging, in particular, has made it increasingly easy to communicate online, and construct knowledge through social interaction making the interactivity notable (Alexander, 2006; Scheidt, 2009). A blog is simply a web-based journal in reverse chronological order, which allow users to create, publish and share information with others (Flatley, 2005; Richardson, 2006). Educational blogs range from school websites, class websites, class blogs, educator blogs, professional learning and for ePortfolios. Such blogs allow students to post text, share hyperlinks, images, and multimedia and to create an asynchronous location where readers can provide feedback, hold discussions, and foster a collaborative learning environment (West, 2008). Churchill (2009) suggests that blogging can be effective educationally where “a teacher can create an ambience in which students find themselves to be important parts of the classroom community” (p. 183).

Blogging can offer new avenues for academic engagement aligned and it can provide students with new forms of participation and, therefore, a tool offering unique learning opportunities. Blogs are useful teaching and learning tools because they provide a space for students to reflect and publish their thoughts and understandings. And because blogs can be commented on, they provide opportunities for feedback and potential scaffolding of new ideas (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). When blogs are used, students are given opportunities to connect what is being learned in the classroom (Hungerford-Kresser et al., 2011).

Blogging allows for enhanced comprehension and communication among students as well as the ability to build deeper understanding across the curriculum; creating a collaborative learning community (Poling, 2005). As a result, blogging has been widely been adopted by educators to improve student learning.

Details of Audience

Blogging in this case, is being discussed as it relates to middle level education. Although blogging has been used at grade levels lower and higher than the middle level, the audience here is primarily for the fifth to the eighth grade administrator or classroom teacher who is interested in pursuing blogging in their classroom and/or school.

Goals & Intended Outcomes

The design of successful educational activities, and particularly those involving technology, is largely dependent on an understanding of theories of pedagogy that describe how the learning will take place (Salmon, 2000). In a constructive learning environment, the authentic opportunity for learners to publish artifacts of learning is critical. Blogs afford these types of authentic opportunities by allowing students to publish their thoughts for real audiences (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004).

To ensure a strong supportive learning environment focused on academic excellence is worthy mission for any school. To then help students acquire the knowledge and life skills for academic, social, and emotional success brings the school to a new level. As a goal schools look to educate students to be critical thinkers, creative problem solvers, effective communicators, and socially responsible, engaged citizens who are college and workforce ready. Schools look to use data from multiple and varied assessments to improve student learning. Teachers enhance student self-esteem and employ a variety of strategies to meet the academic, social, emotional, and safety needs of all students. The professional learning communities adopt best practices for learning.

Schools strive to continuously improve each student’s level of achievement and growth. A cohesive comprehensive curriculum, instruction, and assessment system is aligned to the Common Core Standards and schools ensure that all students meet or exceed benchmark criteria. However, teachers must continue to prepare students to use digital technologies to appropriately access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information to successfully function in a knowledge economy.

As students progress in their learning, it is the duty of the educators to develop and implement consistent practices to support expanded opportunities for community and international learning both face-to-face and online. Educational research and theory have demonstrated the importance of social interaction in teaching and learning. Drawing on Vygotsky's educational theory, educators highlight the "knowledge construction" processes of the learner and suggest that "meaning making" develops through the social process (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). Therefore, as students appropriate and transform knowledge, they must have authentic opportunities for publication of knowledge.

Blogging creates opportunities within the existing curricula to reach out to and communicate with students across the country and around the globe. Blogging develops opportunities within the existing curricula for students to participate in online learning. Blogging has the ability to opens up assignments beyond the teacher-student, allowing the world to view student work and provide encouragement or feedback on their writings giving students a legitimate chance to participate (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). Blogs provide opportunities for diverse perspectives, both within and outside of the classroom. The classroom extends from the physical constraints of those who fit in the classroom to a limitless international audience (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004).

Implementing blogging technology is focusing on a student learning. Educational blogs allow students to take ownership of their learning and publish authentic artifacts containing their thoughts and understandings (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004).

Staffing

Implementing blogging into the classroom requires training and learning by all. Teachers must be prepared to monitor all student comments, posts and activity. Students will also need time to experiment and learn about blogging. Administrators will need to be available to support the implementation, the budgeting and funding as well as the school acceptable use polices for staff and students. Technology supporters will need to research and adopt an appropriated blogging platform. Teaching modeling and exposure to the various tools with teacher support can ensure an easy transition to independent posting and blogging. Time and patience for all is a requirement.

Administrators and leaders are needed to support the process and lead the adoption of technology implementation. Mind Tool (2014) refers to John Kotter, a professor at Harvard Business School, and his 8-step change model as it relates to the value of creating a strong committee with any change initiative. Kotter’s model suggests that effective change leaders throughout can be found throughout any organization. To implement a new technology such as blogging the development of a team made up of “influential people whose power comes from a variety of sources, including job title, status, expertise, and political importance” (Mind Tool, 2014). In the arena of education this means may include community members, teachers, students, technology leaders, administrators and parents.

Technology Involved

Simplicity and interactivity are two key elements that have contributed to the blogs popularity (Alexander, 2006; Scheidt, 2009). Any person with a computer, basic computer skills and an Internet access can blog.

There are several blogging solutions for the classroom, with some more expensive and involved than others. The least expensive solution is to adopt a web-based blogging service, which offers blogging software and hosts the service via the Internet (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). Creating a blog on most of free services takes less than five minutes and often offers options such as web-based editing, public and private blogs, support for plug-ins (e.g., adding comments), and various templates (Ferdig and Trammel, 2004). Typically these web-based blogging services have a FAQ section to provide support with technical issues and troubleshooting

An effective network is essential for the success of technology implementation. Al-Weshail, et al (1996) describe a network as a collection of interconnected individually controlled computers, together with hardware and software used to connect them. This network capacity is vital to accomplish global communication and to afford all students access to online learning. This requires the review of bandwidth capacity, and hardware needs as well as the replacement and upgrade of workstations, servers, infrastructure (internal and external) and software to sustain interconnectivity. The goal is to have a fully operating system to implement a fully networked computing and information technology environment (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996).

Policy and Financial Issues

As with all technology investments, it is important to not only have the financial officers involved in the funding process but also to also ensure that there is a line item in the budget to indicate the support of costs (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996). The budget should allow for allocation of purchases and other expenses necessary for the implementation of the blogging technology.

Within the financial consideration, a school wired framework for training as it relates to the chosen blogging platform should be developed. Educators could additionally benefit from specialized professional development or summer programs designed by school districts specialists. Essentially the training of teachers and professional development must be budgeted for each fiscal year upon review.

Maintenance is a component of a technology plan to be considered within the finances of technology investments (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996). The upkeep and repairs of equipment and such facilities will ensure the longevity of the equipment, adequate staff instruction and budges that are cost effective.

The safety of students is a consideration, which is of the utmost importance. Schools may consider linking student blogs to a teacher owned blog, using a pseudonym instead of the students’ real names, and requiring a password to limit public access. However, using some of suggestions limits the globalization, which is a benefit to blogging. Li, Bado and Moore (2013) look for the provision of detailed instructions and rubrics on writing one’s own blog and on commenting on others’ blogs, especially with regard to negative comments. Ideally, a profession learning community (PLC) should be created to develop a policy, which works per grade level, per school and/or for the school district as a whole. Invite administrators, parents, community members, teachers and other individuals who may bring in different perspectives related to blogging globally. The goal is to focus on the results and positively affect student learning (Fullan, 2009)

Benefits

Educational blogging platforms (created only for education) create a safe and secure space for online learning, social interaction, content with discussions, social communication, announcements, assessment tools, resources and sharing (Papa, 2010). Blogging can help the flattened classroom as described by Morris (2013) to expand to one, which collaborates globally. In the traditional face-to-face classroom, the audience a student has is typically made up of teachers, his/her classmates and parents. Blogs provide a platform for students to share their work to a larger audience with teacher discretion. This widened audience allows for "an avenue for feedback and self-improvement through commenting" (Morris, 2013).

Read Write Think Teaching (2014) suggest that teaching with blogs provides the opportunity to engage students and to share their writing with an authentic audience. When students blog, their writing becomes an “integral part of a lively literacy community” (Read Write Think, 2014). More important is the transparency of learning, which occurs with blogging. Student bloggers, as with all bloggers, have the opportunity to write not just for their teachers but also for a global audience

Blogging can peak student interest in learning. Hossain and Quinn (2013) found that college students and pre-service mathematics teachers responded positively to blogging in their Euclidean geometry course and further suggested that middle school teacher should consider the implementation of such activities in their own classrooms as middle school students might also find blogging to be effective and enjoyable. Hungerford-Kresser, (2011), considered blogging assuming that “the generation of tech-savvy students would enjoy this particular medium” (p. 326).

Limitations

Prior to implementation safety of students must be of the utmost importance. Ensuring that students are free from spam, cyber-bullying and other forms of insecurities is vital. All topics should be discussed and shared with administrators. When a secure plan is in place, such plans should be shared with parents and students alike.

Peter Witt (2013) writes, "Blogging is as much about sharing with one another as it is about getting your voice out." One of the benefits of blogging is making learning transparent. For some schools, posting blogs for the world to read and comment upon is not an option; making the blogging experience internal. With a minimal audience and the limitation of writing for a global audience the true experience of blogging cannot be experienced. However, if a global audience is not permissible there are still benefits to blogging internally. Downes (2004) argued that blogging, as a practice is more about reading than about writing; another lesson to consider when teaching the basic skills that students need to be literate citizens in the 21st century (Read Write Learn, 2014).

Risk Factors

Fryer (2005) describes a blog as an online journal or diary, which is accessible to a global audience and generally allow readers to post comments on blog entries they read. Student blogs can be accessible to the worldwide web and searchable to a global audience. This means exposing students to such Internet issues as cyber-bullying, libel, and even slander. These are risk factors, which must be considered when choosing a blogging platform as well as the settings for student blogs.

MacBride and Luehmann (2008) propose “the realized benefits of classroom blogs depended largely on how teachers choose to structure and use the blog” (p. 182). Simply using technology will not guarantee student engagement, learning or the effectiveness as a pedagogical tool. In looking to use blogging with students, teachers must maintain their focus on planning and decision-making as it relates to their goals and standards. Despite the flexibility and the literature, which share the benefits of blogging in the classroom, teacher awareness of student needs should remain the utmost priority. Macbride and Luehman (2008) warn teachers “that the benefits purported in the literature will not be automatic” (p. 182).

Essential to student learning is student “buy-in.” Yang and Chang (2011) proposed dialogues in the form of blogging are associated with positive attitudes towards. Ellison and Wu (2008) conducted a study that investigated students’ attitudes toward blogging in the classroom and its effect on comprehension where the majority of the participants showed positive attitudes toward blogging. Hossain and Quinn (2013) wrote about the potential value that blogs can have on improving the teaching and learning of mathematics. Technologies such as blogs can be used widely and responsibly, with the goal of enriching students’ learning of mathematics (NCTM, 2000). However, blogging can have the appearance of being just another task for students. Hungerford-Kresser, (2011) considered blogging assuming that “the generation of tech-savvy students would enjoy this particular medium” and made the assumption that the incorporation of technology would make blogging a positive experience for students; which was later found not be the case (p. 326).

A risk is that the implementation of blogging will not directly affect student learning as intended.

Implementation Steps

Papa (2005) describes the essence of technology leadership as producing a change in attitudes, feelings, thinking, behaviors and performance in teachers. When dealing with technology to enhance teaching and learning or what Papa (2005) calls academic technology, this action of change should be handled with planned leadership skills.

Al-Weshail, et al (1996) notes the value of vision and mission statements. A shared vision via an authoritative style of leadership will help to mobilize teachers towards a shared vision with students being the driving force (Papa, 2010). A clear vision can help everyone understand why he or she is asking to use the blogging technology. When individuals see for themselves what is trying to be achieved, then the directives they're given tend to make more sense (Mind Tools, 2014). “Leaders should strive to create and implement a shared vision that integrates technology into all aspects of learning and teaching to keep the technology plan moving in the right direction” of students success (Larson, et al, 2010, p. 13).

Papa (2010) discusses the value of communities of practice when planning, designing, implementing and evaluating technology and further defines the communities as organizational structures, which include the students, parents, teachers and administrators, designed to collaborate on school needs, goals, plans, and activities. The idea of such communities is to move away from the stereotypical system of students learning from the teacher, the teacher getting directives from the principal and the principal being led by the superintendent (Papa, 2010). To better implement the concept of change within the structure of education, it is suggested that all members of the learning community work collaboratively to determine what is best for students and learning; a sense of cohesiveness towards a common goal. Fullan (2009) would describe this use of communities as creating a positive climate via coaching, democracy and affiliation. During the implementation process, “provide opportunities for everyone to be involved” (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996, p. 11).

The implementation with any new technology requires the conceptual understanding of the change process (Papa, 2010; Williamson & Redish, 2009). As teachers are being asked to implement the technology standards and move towards a shared vision, their beliefs and about teaching and learning may be challenged which can be the most trying type of change (Williamson & Redish, 2009). At this point it is vital for leaders to pay attention to the needs of the teachers. The goal is not to inspire the most teachers but to trust the process, stay committed to the vision and understand the complexity of the change process as teachers continue to strive for autonomy and time (Fullan, 2009; Williamson & Redish, 2009). Change is a slow process, which comes with many paths and directions without a direct route. To understand the changes teachers may experience helps technology leaders to understand their own role in the process even more so (Papa, 2010; Williamson & Redish, 2009).

During this implementation process rely on relationships. Pay special attention to the needs and desires of the teacher and help individuals achieve their highest potential (Papa, 2010). Be aware of teacher interests and factors serving to motivate them. Continue on the journey by inspiring others to keep going with enthusiasm, self-confidence, and optimism. Leaders in the process should be sure to surround themselves with a team of knowledgeable individuals dedicated to the same outcome so as to keep the vision as a focus. Fullan (2009) stresses the importance of paying attention to staff and focusing on building relationships to effectively implement technological change.

All schools experience Fullan’s (2009) implementation dips where performance and confidence decreases as teachers encounter an initiative that requires new skills and understanding. As leaders it is important to acknowledge and handle these dips with care, as this is the time when people feel anxious, fearful, confused, overwhelmed, deskilled and cautious (Fullan, 2009). More often than not these dips will appear as resistance from teachers. Use this time to appreciate the resistance and foster the feedback as steps towards improvement and understanding the change from a different viewpoint (Fullan, 2009). Provide teachers with a flexible learning environment that nurtures change, encourages risk-taking and includes motivation strategies for resisters (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996). Mind Tools (2014) notes the importance and value of creating short-term achievable goals with little room for failure where each achievement can motivate the entire staff.

The implementation process will not only require emotional support but will also require a convincing argument (Williamson & Redish, 2009). Organizations invest heavily in technology and training but hardly at all in knowledge sharing and creation (Fullan, 2009). Teachers want to know that what they are doing is best for their learners. As a leader in academic technology, providing teachers with a rationale based on research will prove to be essential in teacher buy-in and acceptance. The leader has the responsibility to help teachers understand why technology is needed in effective teaching practices. Williamson and Redish (2009) suggest that leaders in technology use the works of scholars to synthesize, summarize and present research based resources and knowledge to teachers to drive home the idea of doing what is best for student learning.

As Papa (2010) writes, the focus in education has moved away from learning about technology toward learning with technology and through technology. Effective teachers are required to examine technology, content and pedagogy regularly to ensure students are receiving best practices to enhance their learning. Asking teachers to take on a new aspect of technology, is asking a teacher to redesign his/her curriculum. This is certainly not an easy task and not necessarily a common practice in the implementation process. Papa (2010) writes about the importance of professional development being presented to teachers so it is directly aligned to meet the needs of each individual teacher and carefully designed. Papa (2010) suggests schools develop plans for teachers who may be beginners, for those who use technology but may not be using it in the classroom, for those who are using technology but not yet with a student focus, and for those who are using technology within the curriculum but may be useful in school change. Ultimately, the process for implementation should be progressive and continued (Papa, 2010).

Professional development should address a variety of avenues. Training should include ways to implement blogging into the classroom to support student learning and not just on technology skills. Experienced and exemplary teachers often struggle to create meaningful and rigorous learning experiences with new technologies (Williamson & Redish, 2009). Consideration should also be taken into whether teachers will also need strategies to integrate student computer skills efficiently into instruction as well as ways in which technology resources and learning can be managed in the classroom (Williamson & Redish, 2009). Williamson and Redish (2009) suggest providing models of blogging that can be used in the classroom, engaging teachers in blogging experiences similar to those they expect teachers to use in the classroom, providing teachers with a planning model and linking blogging to other curriculum.

Such experiences and implementation planning will guide provide for an effective implementation of the blogging technology into the classroom. This should include a timeline or schedule, the naming of individuals responsible for each step and checkpoints at various stages. This cyclical process needs consistent monitoring, evaluation and adjusting for successful implementation (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996). Creating a comprehensive plan and strategy cannot be more important as the initial stage when implementing academic technology.

Effectiveness and Assessment Strategy

Studies show that many teacher education programs in the U.S. have not integrated technology appropriately (Hossain and Quinn, 2013). The design of successful educational activities, and particularly those involving technology, is largely dependent on an understanding of theories of pedagogy that describe how the learning will take place (Salmon, 2000). The successful implementation of blogging into the curriculum can enable teachers to develop their abilities to create environments that support student teaching and learning. This can be evaluated via student portfolios and student demonstration of learning. Administrators can also look to highlight ways in which teachers seized the opportunities for integrating blogging into their teaching practices.

MacBride and Luehmann (2008) suggest blogging practices that teachers could consider when structuring their classroom blog sharing resources, student-responding to teacher prompts, recording lessons' highlights, posting learning challenges, reflecting on what was learned and engaging in on-line conversations.) Li, Bado and Moore (2013) suggest effective blogs have multiple creative ways of writing to increase students’ interest, inspire collaborative work and promote critical thinking amongst students. Churchill (2009) notes classroom rapport within groups and the whole class as being essential. McConnell (1999) also addresses the importance of supportive learning environments to students’ deep learning.

Ultimately when assessing the embedding of any technology, including blogging, various variables and indicators of engaged learning should illustrate cultural and pedagogical shifts as identified by reformed instructional practices (MacBride & Luehmann, 2008). Effective implementation of blogging should be evaluated in the vision of learning, tasks, assessment, interactive model and learning context. Learners should be engaged in collaborative, knowledge building experiences, which require them to be responsible and energized by their learning. Tasks should be authentic, challenging and multidisciplinary (MacBride & Luehmann, 2008). Assessments via blogging should be generative, equitable, performance-based, seamless and ongoing rather than fact and skill based (MacBride & Luehmann, 2008). Leaders should regularly look to teachers and students to evaluate such variables. This may be done via questionnaires, observations, conversations, reflections, and other means of gaining access to student learning.

To be prepared for working world Collins and Halverson (2009) recognize the importance of working with others, working with a variety of technologies, acquiring and using information and understanding interrelationships (Collins & Halverson, 2009). Blogging aligns with this “pedagogy” of life long learning due to its reliance on interaction (Collins & Halverson, 2009). Students have the benefit of just-in time learning anywhere and anytime with blogging. Blogging holds the promise for engaging students in deep learning and pushing students to be the best they can be with equity, and engagement. However, this can only happen if tied back to the vision, mission and successful implementation of a strategic plan.



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