Assessing Technology: Education Blog #blogging #edchat

The daily challenge of educators is the gathering of data students’ learning on the basis of what students do in the classroom (U. S. Department of Education, 2014). Technology can be used effectively as a tool for data collection for more so in making learning transparent and inclusive. Technology can offer ways for students to establish personal and intellectual ownership of new concepts while they visualize and interact with abstract ideas (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). If students are to avoid being “confined merely to participating in established practices and making meanings within them” it is important that they are actively able to produce, change and transform a given literacy and not simply participate within it (Lankshear and Knobel, 2006).

Hurlburt (2008) directs instructors further in the usage of the Internet and the incorporation of Web 2.0 tools in education. “Internet and Web 2.0 technologies afford students opportunities to seek information, collect their own material, communicate, make meaning, and evaluate end products” (Nelson, Christopher and Mims, 2009, p. 81). As a result, Web 2.0 technologies have received intense and growing interest across education (Hossain and Quinn, 2013).

Blogging, in particular, has made it increasingly easy to communicate online, and construct knowledge through social interaction making the interactivity notable (Alexander, 2006; Scheidt, 2009). Blogging can offer new avenues for academic engagement aligned and it can provide students with new forms of participation and, therefore, a tool offering unique learning opportunities. Blogs are useful teaching and learning tools because they provide a space for students to reflect and publish their thoughts and understandings. And because blogs can be commented on, they provide opportunities for feedback and potential scaffolding of new ideas. (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004)

Blogging allows for enhanced comprehension and communication among students as well as the ability to build deeper understanding across the curriculum; creating a collaborative learning community (Poling, 2005). As a result, blogging has been widely been adopted by educators to improve student learning.

Goals & Intended Outcomes

The design of successful educational activities, and particularly those involving technology, is largely dependent on an understanding of theories of pedagogy that describe how the learning will take place (Salmon, 2000). In a constructive learning environment, the authentic opportunity for learners to publish artifacts of learning is critical. Blogs afford these types of authentic opportunities by allowing students to publish their thoughts for real audiences (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004).

To ensure a strong supportive learning environment focused on academic excellence is worthy mission for any school. To then help students acquire the knowledge and life skills for academic, social, and emotional success brings the school to a new level. As a goal schools look to educate students to be critical thinkers, creative problem solvers, effective communicators, and socially responsible, engaged citizens who are college and workforce ready. Schools look to use data from multiple and varied assessments to improve student learning. Teachers enhance student self-esteem and employ a variety of strategies to meet the academic, social, emotional, and safety needs of all students. The professional learning communities adopt best practices for learning.

Schools strive to continuously improve each student’s level of achievement and growth. A cohesive comprehensive curriculum, instruction, and assessment system is aligned to the Common Core Standards and schools ensure that all students meet or exceed benchmark criteria. However, teachers must continue to prepare students to use digital technologies to appropriately access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information to successfully function in a knowledge economy.

As students progress in their learning, it is the duty of the educators to develop and implement consistent practices to support expanded opportunities for community and international learning both face-to-face and online. Educational research and theory have demonstrated the importance of social interaction in teaching and learning. Drawing on Vygotsky's educational theory, educators highlight the "knowledge construction" processes of the learner and suggest that "meaning making" develops through the social process (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). Therefore, as students appropriate and transform knowledge, they must have authentic opportunities for publication of knowledge.

Blogging creates opportunities within the existing curricula to reach out to and communicate with students across the country and around the globe. Blogging develops opportunities within the existing curricula for students to participate in online learning. Blogging has the ability to opens up assignments beyond the teacher-student, allowing the world to view student work and provide encouragement or feedback on their writings giving students a legitimate chance to participate (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). Blogs provide opportunities for diverse perspectives, both within and outside of the classroom. The classroom extends from the physical constraints of those who fit in the classroom to a limitless international audience (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004).

Implementing blogging technology is focusing on a student learning. Educational blogs allow students to take ownership of their learning and publish authentic artifacts containing their thoughts and understandings (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004).

Details of Audience

Blogging in this case, is being discussed as it relates to middle level education. Although blogging has been used at grade levels lower and higher than the middle level, the audience here is primarily for the fifth to the eighth grade administrator or classroom teacher who is interested in pursuing blogging in their classroom and/or school.

Technology Involved

Simplicity and interactivity are two key elements that have contributed to the blogs popularity (Alexander, 2006; Scheidt, 2009). Any person with a computer, basic computer skills and an Internet access can blog.

There are several blogging solutions for the classroom, with some more expensive and involved than others. The least expensive solution is to adopt a web-based blogging service, which offers blogging software and hosts the service via the Internet (Ferdig and Trammell, 2004). Creating a blog on most of free services takes less than five minutes and often offers options such as web-based editing, public and private blogs, support for plug-ins (e.g., adding comments), and various templates (Ferdig and Trammel, 2004). Typically these web-based blogging services have a FAQ section to provide support with technical issues and troubleshooting

An effective network is essential for the success of technology implementation. Al-Weshail, et al. (1996) describe a network as a collection of interconnected individually controlled computers, together with hardware and software used to connect them. This network capacity is vital to accomplish global communication and to afford all students access to online learning. This requires the review of bandwidth capacity, and hardware needs as well as the replacement and upgrade of workstations, servers, infrastructure (internal and external) and software to sustain interconnectivity. The goal is to have a fully operating system to implement a fully networked computing and information technology environment (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996, p. 29).

Policy and Financial Issues

As with all technology investments, it is important to not only have the financial officers involved in the funding process but also to also ensure that there is a line item in the budget to indicate the support of costs (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996, p. 35). The budget should allow for allocation of purchases and other expenses necessary for the implementation of the blogging technology.

Within the financial consideration, a school wired framework for training as it relates to the chosen blogging platform should be developed. Educators could additionally benefit from specialized professional development or summer programs designed by school districts specialists. Essentially the training of teachers and professional development must be budgeted for each fiscal year upon review.

Maintenance is a component of a technology plan to be considered within the finances of technology investments (Al-Weshail, et al, 1996, p. 29). The upkeep and repairs of equipment and such facilities will ensure the longevity of the equipment, adequate staff instruction and budges that are cost effective.

The safety of students is a consideration, which is of the utmost importance. Schools may consider linking student blogs to a teacher owned blog, using a pseudonym instead of the students’ real names, and requiring a password to limit public access. However, using some of suggestions limits the globalization, which is a benefit to blogging. Li, Bado and Moore (2013) look for the provision of detailed instructions and rubrics on writing one’s own blog and on commenting on others’ blogs, especially with regard to negative comments. Ideally, a profession learning community (PLC) should be created to develop a policy, which works per grade level, per school and/or for the school district as a whole. Invite administrators, parents, community members, teachers and other individuals who may bring in different perspectives related to blogging globally. The goal is to focus on the results and positively affect student learning (Fullan, 2007, p. 73)

Effectiveness

Studies show that many teacher education programs in the U.S. have not integrated technology appropriately (Hossain and Quinn, 2013, p. 1). The design of successful educational activities, and particularly those involving technology, is largely dependent on an understanding of theories of pedagogy that describe how the learning will take place (Salmon, 2000). The successful implementation of blogging into the curriculum will enable teachers to develop their abilities to create environments that support student teaching and learning. This can be evaluated via student portfolios and student demonstration of learning. Administrators can also look to highlight ways in which teachers seized the opportunities for integrating blogging into their teaching practices.

MacBride and Luehmann. (2008) suggest blogging practices that teachers could consider when structuring their classroom blog sharing resources, student-responding to teacher prompts, recording lessons' highlights, posting learning challenges, reflecting on what was learned and engaging in on-line conversations.) Li, Bado and Moore (2013) suggest effective blogs have multiple creative ways of writing to increase students’ interest, inspire collaborative work and promote critical thinking amongst students. Churchill (2009) notes classroom rapport within groups and the whole class as being essential. McConnell (1999) also addresses the importance of supportive learning environments to students’ deep learning.


References

Al-Weshail, A., Baxter, A., Cherry, W. Hill, E., Jones III, C., Love. L., Woods, J. (1996). Guidebook for creating an effective instructional technology plan. Retrieved from http://www.nctp.com/downloads/guidebook.pdf

Alexander, B. (2006). Web 2.0: A new wave of innovation for teaching and learning? Educause Review, 41(2), 32–44. Retrieved on April 4, 2014 from http://www.educause.edu/ ir/library/pdf/erm0621.pdf.

Collins, A. & Halverson, R. (2009). Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital revolution and schooling in America. New York: Teachers College Press.

Deng, L., & Yuen, A. H. (2011). Towards a framework for educational affordances of blogs. Computers & education, 56(2), 441-451.

Ferdig, R. E., & Trammell, K. D. (2004). Content delivery in the ‘blogosphere’. The Journal, 31(7), 12-20.

Fullan, M. (2007). Leading in a culture of change. Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass.

Hossain, M. M., & Quinn, R. J. Examining Relationships between Preservice Mathematics Teachers’ Gender and their Perceptions of a Blogging Activity in a Euclidean Geometry Class.

Hurlburt, S. (2008). Defining tools for a new learning space: writing and reading class blogs. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 4(2). Retrieved on April 5, 2014 from http://jolt.merlot.org/vol4no2/hurlburt0608.htm

Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2006). New literacies: Changing knowledge in the classroom. McGraw-Hill International.

Li, K., Bado, N., Smith, J., & Moore, D. (2013). Blogging for Teaching and Learning: An Examination of Experience, Attitudes, and Levels of Thinking. Contemporary Educational Technology, 4(3).

MacBride, R., & Lynn Luehmann, A. (2008). Capitalizing on emerging technologies: A case study of classroom blogging. School Science and Mathematics, 108(5), 173-183.

Nelson, J., Christopher, A., & Mims, C. (2009). TPACK and Web 2.0: Transformation of teaching and learning. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 53(5), 80–87.

O'Donnell, M. (2006). Blogging as pedagogic practice: Artefact and ecology. Asia Pacific Media Educator, 1(17), 3.

Ohler, J. (2011). Character education in the digital age. Educational Leadership, 68. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/feb11/vol68/num05/Character-Education-for-the-Digital-Age.aspx

Papa, R. (2010). Technology leadership for school improvement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Poling, C. (2005). Blog On: Building Communication and Collaboration Among Staff and Students. Learning & Leading with Technology, 32(6), 12-15.

Reeves, T. (2014). Blogging and Interculturality: Investigating Appropriateness of a Blog to Support a Cohort of International Students. International Journal of Global Education, 3(1).

Salmon, G. (2000). E-moderating: the key to teaching and learning online. London: Kogan Page.

Scheidt, L. A. (2009). Diary weblogs as genre (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved on April 4, 2014 from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?

U.S. Department of Education. (2014). Assessment: Measure what matters. http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010/assessment-measure-what-matters



Williamson, J. & Redish, T. (2009). ISTE’s technology facilitation and leadership standards. Retrieved from http://www.iste.org/images/excerpts/TLPREP-excerpt.pdf

Reflecting on Research

Merriam (2009) is quick to state, “the challenge to those new to qualitative research is trying to figure out which “kind” of qualitative research to do” (p. 32). As one of those individuals who can be identified as new to research, I wasn’t even aware of the various types within qualitative research. After reading Merriam’s writings I have found a peaked interest in narrative analysis but am unsure if this is a type or methodology to be used for my research.

My current research is focused middle school students’ attitudes towards mathematic and how this correlates to achievement. The mathematical performance of students in the United States is regularly compared to the performance of students globally. How do the attitudes of students compare globally? One way to find this out is to listen to the stories of those who are directly connected to middle school students and their attitudes towards mathematics, past and present, locally and globally as well as those who are living it; the students themselves.

In researching I am interested to hear about the school, home and cultural expectations, which may or may not influence students’ attitudes. Narrative analysis centers around the study of individuals but also of groups, societies, and cultures. These are the narratives which can help me to better understand middle school students’ attitudes globally and factors which may affect these attitudes. Does delving into the lives of those who have lived with or experienced a particular mathematics education within in the U.S. and globally direct my type of research into phenomenology? (Lichtman, 2012)

Merriam (2009) describes the end result of a phenomenological study as “a composite description that gives the reader a better understanding of what it is for somebody to live the experience” (p. 26). As a new researcher, the ability to gather personal perspectives and descriptions from a significant global population seems unlikely. Not having access to a significant population will make eliminate my research from being statistically reliable. Am I simply using phenomenology as a philosophy versus a type of qualitative research?

After reasoning through the various types of qualitative research, Merriam (2009) has helped me to identify myself as “a researcher who is interested in understanding the meaning a phenomenon has for those involved” (p. 22). There is interest in the narrative analysis and phenomenological aspects of qualitative research, however, I have convinced myself that my research will fall under that of a basic qualitative study; “a study looking to uncover and interpret meaning” (Merriam, 2009, p.24).


Lichtman, M. (2012). Qualitative research in education: A user's guide. Sage.

Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications.

Middle School Students’ Attitudes and Self-Concept Towards Mathematics

The purpose of this basic qualitative study will be to identify factors which influence middle school students' attitudes and self-concept towards mathematics for the Hollis-Brookline District. At this stage in the research, the mathematical attitudes will be generally defined as a student’s emotions, beliefs and behaviors towards mathematics (Hart, 1989). Mathematical self-concept will be described as a student’s perception or belief to do well in mathematics and confidence in learning mathematics (Reyes, 1984).

What factors influence middle school students' attitudes and self-concept towards mathematics? Mathematics is a focal point of importance in schools worldwide. More mathematics lessons are likely to be taught in schools throughout the world than any other subject (A. Orton, D. Orton, & Frobisher, 2004). The mathematical performance of students in the United States is regularly compared to the performance of students in other countries. The question that arises is how the attitudes towards mathematics education compare globally.

Research by Yilmaz and Olkun (2010) states that a successful student has a positive attitude. However, Bouhlila (2011) found some of the highest scoring countries with the greatest number of students with negative attitudes. What are the mathematical attitudes of Hollis Brookline students and what correlations, if any, can be found between mathematical achievement and attitudes?

In the U.S. negativity towards mathematics comes into play around the middle school years, as does the feeling of lack of social support students feel they receive. According Hassan, Hassan, Ching, and Hamizah, (2012), interventions such as teacher support, cooperative learning, classroom materials, modeling, and self-efficacy have direct effects on the intrinsic motivation; related to the attitudes of students. What factors support positive attitudes? What global differences in interventions might be considered?

In mathematics education, research on attitude has been motivated by the belief that “something called "attitude" plays a crucial role in learning mathematics” (Neale, 1969). A simple definition of mathematical attitude can be described as the learned tendency or predisposition to respond in a consistently negative or positive manner towards mathematics; a positive or negative emotional disposition toward mathematics (Aiken, 1996; McLeod, 1992, McLeod, 1997; Haladyna, Shaughnessy J. & Shaughnessy M., 1983). Ma & Kishor (1997) define one’s attitude towards mathematics “as an aggregated measure of liking or disliking of mathematics, a tendency to engage in or avoid mathematical activities, a believe that one is good or bad at mathematics, and a belief that mathematics is useful or useless” (p. 27). Neal (1969) defined attitude towards mathematics as “an aggregated liking or of disliking mathematics, a tendency engage in or avoid mathematical activities, a belief that one is good or bad at mathematics, and a belief that mathematic is useful or useless"(p.632). Mathematical attitude where behaviors do not appear explicitly are defined as a pattern of beliefs and emotions associated with mathematics (Daskalogianni & Simpson, 2000). Kulm (1980) claims that “it is probably not possible to offer a definition of attitude toward mathematics that would be suitable for all situations, and even if one were agreed on, it would probably be too general to be useful” (p. 358).

For the purpose of this study, a student’s attitude towards mathematics will be recognized as a multi-dimensional working definition to include the positive and negative feelings towards mathematics; emotional responses, beliefs regarding mathematics, and behaviors related to mathematics (Daskalogianni & Simpson, 2000). A student’s attitude toward mathematics will be defined by emotions and beliefs towards mathematics, as well as student behaviors (Hart, 1989).

Several studies and researchers have focused on the relationships between achievement and attitudes in mathematics. A commonality appears to arise; as students progress in years of schooling their attitudes towards mathematics increase in negativity (Ma & Kishor, 1997). Researchers Dossey (1988), Wilkins and Ma (2003) and Wilkins (2004) similar pattern in negativity has been shown in a student’s mathematical self-concept; defined as a student’s perception or belief to do well in mathematics and confidence in learning mathematics (Reyes, 1984).

The purpose of this study is to identify factors, which influence the mathematical attitudes of middle school students in the Hollis-Brookline School District. Interventions which include teacher support, cooperative learning, classroom tools and technology, modeling, and self-efficacy are recognized as having direct effects on the intrinsic motivation of students; related to the attitudes of students globally. Are these factors influential in the Hollis Brookline schools? What factors influence the middle school students’ attitudes? Is there a direct correlation between their performance and their attitudes? What are other countries doing to positively affect their students’ attitudes and self-concept? And are these factors lacking in lower performing countries? The goal is to look globally for factors and influences, which have a positive effect on middle school students’ mathematical attitudes and self-concept to provide supports and interventions for the Hollis-Brookline students.

Sampling

Purposeful sampling will be utilized for this study since generalization is not a goal of qualitative research but instead the goal is to study in depth. (Merriam, 2009). This sampling will include all students at the middle school to gain the best representation of middle school students in the Hollis-Brookline School District.

With this sampling set, the goal is to utilize maximum variation in in choosing middle school students within the Hollis-Brookline school district. This would include all students in grades seven and either who are currently enrolled and physically/mentally capable of participating in the sampling. This would give the greatest variety and overall view of all students within the middle school. To help with confidentiality and honesty, a survey (possibly electronic) may used for data collection. This will ultimately depend on computer availability and accessibility.

The middle school sampling will address grades seven and eight. Using the same artifact, I expect to gain insight into the students which are not within the middle levels yet and to expand the representation to grades which are typical of the middle level, I would like to include maximum variation into grade six of both upper elementary schools. This would also entail any students who are currently enrolled and physically/mentally capable of participating. Expanding beyond the middle school may also give insight into attitudes of students who are not yet in the setting of the middle school environment but are of middle school age.

To gain perspectives from educators and other staff members who work with students in the area of mathematics, the intent is to use a snowball method. Currently, I am aware of several teachers in the building who have work with students in the area of mathematics but I am assuming there are others within the district that have insights into factors which may influence the mathematical attitudes and self-concepts of middle school students. This sampling may expand beyond the middle school building to include any staff that work within the Hollis-Brookline School District. The best methods for these interactions will be interviews, online conferencing and/or email correspondence. Again choosing a method, which is convenient for the participant.

Working with children and asking for one-on-one interviews would be insightful. This would be especially true to gain insight into their attitudes and self-concepts towards mathematics. This will be opportunistic and could become a case study if permitted by the parent, school and student. Such a sampling would be an opportunity to dig deeper into a students thoughts and perceptions; both positive and negative. To keep student-to-teacher relationships, these interviews would be conducted at the associated school. The ideal sampling would be one a student from each grade level, from each team and each with a different perspective to ensure a variety in data collection.

References

Bouhlila, D. S. (2011). The quality of secondary education in the Middle East and North Africa: what can we learn from TIMSS’ results? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 41(3), 327–352. doi:10.1080/03057925.2010.539887

Daskalogianni, K., & Simpson, A. (2000). Towards a definition of attitude: The relationship between the affective and the cognitive in pre-university

Dossey, J. A. (1988). The Mathematics Report Card: Are We Measuring Up? Trends and Achievement Based on the 1986 National Assessment. National Assessment of Educational Progress, Educational Testing Service, Rosedale Road, Princeton, NJ 08541-0001.

Haladyna, T., Shaughnessy, J., Shaughnessy, M. (1983). A causal analysis of attitude toward Mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 14 (1), 19-29.

Hannula, M. S. (2002). Attitude towards mathematics: Emotions, expectations and values. Educational studies in Mathematics, 49(1), 25-46.

Hassan, N., Ching, K. Y., & Hamizah, N. N. (2012). Gifted Students' Affinity towards Mathematics. Advances in Natural & Applied Sciences, 6(8).

Hart, L. E. (1989). Describing the affective domain: Saying what we mean. In Affect and mathematical problem solving (pp. 37-45). Springer New York.

Kulm, G. (1980). Research on mathematics attitude. Research in mathematics education.

Lipnevich, A. A., MacCann, C., Krumm, S., Burrus, J., & Roberts, R. D. (2011). Mathematics attitudes and mathematics outcomes of US and Belarusian middle school students. Journal of educational psychology, 103(1), 105. doi:10.1037/a0021949

McLeod, D. B. (1992). Research on affect in mathematics education: A reconceptualization. Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning, 575-596.

Ma, X., & Kishor, N. (1997). Assessing the relationship between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Journal for research in mathematics education, 26-47.

Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications.

Neale, D. C. (1969). The role of attitudes in learning mathematics. The Arithmetic Teacher, 16(8), 631-640.

Orton, A., & Frobisher, L. J. (1996). Insights into teaching mathematics. London: Cassell.

Reyes, I., H. (1984). Affective variables and mathematics education. Elementary School Journal, 84, 558-581.

Wilkins, J. L. (2004). Mathematics and science self-concept: An international investigation. The Journal of Experimental Education, 72(4), 331-346.

Wilkins, Jesse L. M.Ma, X. (2003). Modeling Change in Student Attitude Toward and Beliefs About Mathematics. Journal of Educational Research. Sep/Oct2003, 97(1), 52–63.

Yılmaz, Ç., Altun, S. A., & Olkun, S. (2010). Factors affecting students’ attitude towards Math: ABC theory and its reflection on practice. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4502-4506.

Literature Reviews

In preparation for formal research, a new found awareness of a dissertation literature review brings about a whole new view of its value and importance. Consistent through readings are the necessity of literature reviews. Boote and Beile (2005) stress comprehensive and up-to-date literature review as the best ways for aquiring knowledge for a dissertation but these reviews are more in-depth than Crewell’s (1994) five-step process of identifying terms, finding literature, reading and checking for relevance, organizing selected literature and writing reviews. Boote and Beile (2005) suggest the use of Strike and Posner (1983) three categories to identify a good synthetic review, which includes the clarification and a possible resolution to an problem within one’s field of study, the development of a new perspective, and satisfying the criteria of good theory. A dissertation literature review summarizes similar studies, links to ongoing research, provides a basis for research as a result of previous studies. Boote and Beile (2005) make note of Hart’s extensions to these basic requirements which include a clear articulation of research which needs to be done and why it is important, a clear articulation of it’s practical significance, a synthesis of prior research so as to develop a new perspective and a critical analysis of the methodologies using in prior research. This is above and beyond the basic level of the literature review Creswell discusses.

Boote and Beile (2005) provide a higher level perspective on a literature review which are necessary for a doctoral dissertation. Taking the time to compare each annotation in a literature review against the categories (i.e. coverage, synthesis, methodology, significant and rhetoric) are essential to writing a review where the researcher demonstrates an ability to do research which advances important educational issues (Boote and Beile, 2005). A doctoral literature review requires more than simple summaries and should meet Hart’s criterion as suggested by Boote and Beile (2005) to include:

•    a justification criteria for inclusions and exclusions

•    distinguishing what has been done in the field from what needs to be done

•    placing the research in broader literature

•    placing the research in a historic context

•    acquiring and enhancing related vocabulary

•    articulating important variables and phenomena

•    synthesizing and gaining new perspectives

•    identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used and analyze their advantages and disadvantages

•    relating ideas and theories to research methodologies

•    rationalizing the scholarly and practical significance of the research 

•    a clear and coherent structure.

Specific to me is the developed understanding that the literature review should be a central focus my research. I can expect to review and reread literature throughout this process expecting to change my focus to develop workable and important problems to show a thorough and sophisticated understanding of the field (Boote and Beile 2005). For now, I will review my current annotations to determine if they meet the criterion and will add value to a doctoral literature review.

Boote, D. & Beile, P. (2005). Scholars before researchers: On the Centrality of the Dissertation Literature Review in Research Preparation, Educational Researcher, 34(6), 3-15.

A Comparison of Two Approaches in Qualitative Research

Merriam (2009) describes qualitative research as the process of uncovering the meaning of a phenomenon (p. 5). Merriam (2009) expresses it’s design as desire to understand how people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds and what meaning they attribute to their experiences. As this type of research has spread across multiple disciplines, various approaches have been identified to further describe this interest in understanding phenomenon. Creswell (2013) discusses five approaches to describe and organize the different strategies and approaches to qualitative research – ethnography, narrative, grounded theory, case study and phenomenology. Merriam (2009) adds to this list by including basic qualitative research and critical qualitative research. Additional authors have added numerous approaches to this few, however, for the purposes of this paper only two traditional approaches will be discussed; phenomenology and case study.

Phenomenology

Drawing from a philosophical background, phenomenology is described by Lichtman (2012) as “a way to research the gaps in a discipline, those areas that previously were not considered important to research” (p. 86). The focus of phenomenology is on a phenomenon and the essence of the lived experience; not on an individual. Creswell (2013) quotes Melau-Pony as “the researcher transcending past knowledge and experience to understand a phenomenon at a deeper level” (p. 331). Phenomenology is not interested in modern science’s efforts to categorize, simplify and reduce phenomena to abstract laws (Merriam, 2009, p. 24). The intent suggested by Creswell (2013) is to describe the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences with phenomenon elicit rich and descriptive data.
Researchers choose phenomenology when it is important to understand several individuals’ common or shared experiences of a phenomenon to develop practices or polices or to develop a deeper understanding about the features of the phenomenon. (Creswell, 2013). The phenomenological approach allows the researcher to examine a phenomenon and the meaning it holds for individuals by seeking out individual subjective views (Seidman, 2012). This is primarily done through interviewing where researchers “strive to understand a person’s experience from their point of view by studying affective, emotional and intense human experiences” (Merriam, 2009, p. 26).
Essentially this approach is a philosophical discussion. It relies on more than selecting a coding scheme and constant-comparative methods. The researcher must understand the some of the underlying philosophical assumptions (Lichtman, 2012). Creswell (2013) extends this to the researcher bracketing out of the study by discussing personal experiences with the phenomenon, setting aside personal beliefs feelings and perceptions. Phenomenology’s approach is to “suspend all judgements about what is real until they are founded on a more certain basis” (Creswell, 2013, p. 77).
Phenomenology primarily uses interviewing to collect data on the individuals who have lived the experience. And although a several interviews may be asked on each participant, Creswell (2013) suggest two broad interviewing questions: “What have you experienced in terms of this phenomenon? What contexts or situation have typically influenced or affected your experiences of the phenomenon?” (p. 81). For some individuals this question may be answered with alternative methods such as documents, observations, journals, art work or other documentation, however, the process of collecting information is primarily in-depth interviews (Creswell, 2013). The intention is to gather information from several individuals, that unit of analysis, to develop descriptions of essences and not to provide explanations. These descriptions consist of what Moustakas (1994) simplifies as “what” individuals experienced and “how” they experienced it (Creswell, 2013).
The collection of data from individuals who have experienced the phenomenon culminates in a description of the essence of the phenomenon through the analysis of the data. An approach which Creswell (2013) details as “a systematic procedure that moves from the narrow units of analysis (the significant statements) to broader units (meaning units) and then the detailed descriptions that summarize what individuals have experienced and how they have experienced it” (p. 79). The result of phenomenological research is feeling like “I understand better what it is like for someone to experience that” (Merriam, 2009, p. 26).
In summary, the phenomenological approach requires the researcher to interview the individuals, ground the study in philosophical tenets of phenomenology, follow set procedures and end with the essence of the meaning. (Creswell, 2013, p. 124)

Case Study

Drawing from a psychology, Creswell (2013) uses a case study to develop and in-depth description and analysis of a case or multiple cases with the intent to understand a specific issue, problem or concern. Specifically, an instrumental case or cases is selected to best illustrate the complexity of the issue and understand the problem (Creswell, 2013). Intrinsic case studies may also be used where they illustrate a unique case that has unusual interest in and of itself and needs to be described and detailed (Creswell, 2013). Case studies are identified by Creswell (2013) as being “a good approach when a clearly identifiable case with boundaries has been identified and the researcher seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of the cases or a comparison of several cases” (p. 100).

Creswell (2013) recognizes that a case study begins with the identification of a specific case, which can be an individual, several individuals, a program, an event or an activity. A case can even be “limited to a characteristic, trait or behavior” (Lichtman, 2012, p. 91). “If the researcher has a specific entity, program, or project and the questions being asked are involved with asking what happened when the program was developed, or how did an individual behave then the researcher can probably do a case study" (Lichtman, 2012, p. 93). The challenge is to study a case with clear boundaries (Creswell, 2013)

“A good case study presents an in-depth understanding of the case, which is accomplished through various forms of data; relying on one source of data is not enough to develop an in-depth understanding” (Creswell, 2013, p. 98). These multiple sources may include documents, interviews, observations and artifacts but are not limited to one source. The data collection process involves a wide array of procedures to build an in-depth picture of the study, which includes contextual material to describe the setting of each case (Creswell, 2013).

Case studies can be identified according to Merriam (2009) as particularistic (focused on a particular even, program or phenomenon), descriptive (the end product is a rich, thick description of the phenomenon under study) or heuristic (brings about the discovery of new meaning, extends the reader’s experience or confirms what is know). Creswell (2013) further types case studies by intent: intrinsic with the focus is on the case itself because the case presents an unusual or unique situation, instrumental which focuses on an issue or concern and then selects one bounded case to illustrate this issue or as multiple case where one issue or concern is selected but the researcher selects multiple case studies to illustrate the issue. As a result, the unit of analysis in a case study may be multiple cases (a multi-site study) or a single case (a within-site study).

The analysis of data requires the description of the case and themes of the case as well as cross-case themes. Creswell (2013) recognizes the four specific formats of data analysis. Categorical aggregation seeks a collection of instances from the data hoping that the issue-relevant meanings will emerge, direct interpretation looks at a single instance and draws meaning from it without looking for multiple instances, the establishment of patterns which looks for a correspondence between two or more categories and naturalistic generalizations which is the development of generalizations that people can learn from the case either for themselves or to apply to a population of cases (Creswell, 2013).

The culmination of the analysis is the development of a detailed analysis of one or more cases where the researcher details the history of the case, the chronology of events or a day-by-day rendering of the activities of the case (Creswell, 2013). The researcher then focuses on a few key issues (the analysis of themes) not for generalizing but for understanding the complexity of the case (Creswell, 2013). When multiple cases are chosen a typical format is to provide a detailed description of each case and themes within the case, followed by a thematic analysis across the cases as well as assertions of the meaning of the case. However, the final phase is the conclusion which Creswell (2013) reports as “the meaning of the case, whether the meaning comes from learning about the issue of the case (an instrumental case) or learning about an unusual situation (an intrinsic case)” (p. 101). It is here where the researcher includes a description of the case and themes/issues that were uncovered in the study as well as general lessons learned; assertions, patterns or explanations (Creswell, 2013).

“Case studies are particularly appealing for applied fields of study such as education” (Merriam, 2009, p. 51). Researchers may choose a case study for what it can reveal about a phenomenon (Merriam, 2009). When a researcher needs information about the characteristics of a given population or an area of interest, a descriptive case study is a good choice. The results should not be used to predict behavior however insights from the research can be construed as tentative hypotheses that help structure future research; case studies plan an important role in advancing a field’s knowledge base (Merriam, 2009, p. 51). Merriam (2009) states that “what researchers learn in a particular case can be transferred to similar situations and bring about understanding that in turn can affect and may even improve practice” (p. 51).

Case studies are intensive descriptions and explanations, which require the analysis of a single entity, phenomenon or social unit called a case. Researchers choose the case study approach to examine a case, bounded in time or place and look for contextual material about the setting of the case. They gather extensive material from multiple sources of information to provide and in-depth picture of the case (Creswell, 201). Researchers explore a case or cases over time though detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information and report a case description and case themes (Creswell, 2013). Creswell (2013) describes the focus of a case study as the development of an in-depth understanding of a singe case or exploration of an issue or problem using the case as a specific illustration. It is ultimately up to the researcher to describe the case in detail and mentions several issues or focus on a single issue that emerged when examining the case (Creswell, 2013).

In the end, case studies explore an issue or problem and a detailed understanding emerges from examining a case or several cases (Creswell, 2013). It is necessary, to use multiple data collection strategies to collect a wide array of information about the case to provide an in-depth picture so generalizations that can be learned from studying the case or cases end the case study report (Creswell, 2013).

Although Creswell (2013) defines each of these approaches as flexible there are considerable differences between the two. One difference between the two approaches is the strategies, which are used to collect data. Phenomenology primarily uses interviews, and several interviews per participant, with the option of using alternate documents. A case study approach requires the use of multiple data collection strategies and looks down upon the use of one primary format. A second difference between the two approaches is in the area of describing the data. Within phenomenology personal experiences are shared through epoche, which is not seen in a case study. The case study describes the case and its context, however, lacks in the directive to include an epoche as described by Creswell (2013). An additional difference is the way in which the data is interpreted for these traditional approaches. Within phenomenology a reader will find a textural description, which describes what happened, a structural description, which describes how the phenomenon was experienced and a conclusion which develops the essence of the phenomena. Within a case study there great reliance on description in direct interpretation and the development generalizations of what was learned from the research (Creswell, 2013). A third defining difference can be found within the basic defining factors of each approach. Phenomenology is defined by the focus of the study while a case study is defined by the unit of analysis. Merriam (2009) points out the fact that case studies are focused on the unit of analysis or the bounded case while phenomenology is focused on the understanding of the essence of the phenomena. This difference allows for some overlapping of approaches and provides a backing for research methodologies, which combine these approaches.

Proposed Study

My proposed study is to describe middle school students’ attitudes and self-concept towards mathematics. At stated in previously, the mathematical attitudes are generally defined as a student’s emotions, beliefs and behaviors towards mathematics (Hart, 1989). Mathematical self-concept is described as a student’s perception or belief to do well in mathematics and confidence in learning mathematics (Reyes, 1984).

Literature has identified interventions, which include teacher support, cooperative learning, classroom tools and technology, modeling, and self-efficacy as having direct effects on the intrinsic motivation of students. What are factors students identify with as influencing their attitudes? What factors influence the middle school students’ self-concept? Is there a direct correlation between their performance and these concepts? What are other countries doing to positively affect their students’ attitudes and self-concept? And are these factors lacking in lower performing countries?

Using the phenomenological approach would require data collection primarily through interviews. However, with the intent of interviewing students I recognize that other forms of data are acceptable and may in actuality be preferable to a student. This will provide for a richer and more in-depth study. Multiple data collection strategies will help to understand “what” students experienced and “how” they experienced it in relation their mathematical attitudes; a phenomenological approach where I listen to students describe their experiences, and the events which led to their attitudes. Bromley states the importance of “getting as close to the subject of interest as possible, partly by means of direct observation in natural settings, partly by access to the subjective factors (thoughts, feelings, and desires)” (Merriam, 2009, p. 46).

This focus on one phenomena, the case, helps to define an instrumental case study where important themes can by analyzed. However, the boundries of such a case will need to be clearly defined to gain the appropriate sampling for a case study. Creswell (2013) suggests maximal sampling or purposefully selecting multiple cases to show different perspectives; limiting to a maximum of fives cases. Such sampling will allow me to look at students who have positive as well as negative attitudes towards mathematics rather than one specific attitude with a multi-case study.  

Choosing a phenomenological approach would allow me to understand the mathematical experience of middle school students through their eyes. Such understanding and sharing of experience would hopefully shed new light on educational practices and develop a deeper understanding of the attitudes of middle school students towards mathematics (Creswell, 2013).

As a mathematics teacher of several years, I have developed biases and assumptions related to students’ attitudes towards mathematics. As a result, it will be important to bracket myself from the study, which is a necessity in a phenomenological study. Remaining absolute and objective is never 100% guaranteed. A case study does not require the examination of biases and assumptions in the format of a epoche however Merriam (2009) states that this process has become common practice for all researchers.

Despite the fact that these two approaches have several recognizable differences, they both have been used for educational research. Phenomena can be described using either research approach. However, Creswell (2013) suggests that consideration must be taken into what is needed most as contributing to the scholarly literature in the field of education. The possibility of overlapping a case study and a phenomenological approach has crossed my mind as a result of this paper. I can see the usage of a textural description to describe the students self-concept and the structural description to describe how they experienced it to further share the overall experience of what it is like to hate math and the lack of self-concept being able to do it. Creswell (2013) suggests “designing a study within one of the approaches to enhance the sophistication of the project and to convey a methodological expertise for readers of qualitative research” (p. 279). A case study is the chosen approach.

References

Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches, Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

Hart, L. E. (1989). Describing the affective domain: Saying what we mean. In Affect and mathematical problem solving (pp. 37-45). Springer New York.

Lichtman, M. (2012). Qualitative research in education: A user's guide. Sage.

Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications.

Reyes, I., H. (1984). Affective variables and mathematics education. Elementary School Journal, 84, 558-581.

Seidman, I. (2012). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. Teachers college press.